THE AMAZON RAINFOREST

Introduction 
          

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           Known as the "Lungs of the Planet," the Amazon Rainforest is a reservoir of natural resources, spanning over eight countries including Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and mainly Brazil. Particularly, Brazil contains approximately 60% of the diverse rainforest, while Peru covers almost 13% (Citation #6) .

Refer to Citation #15

What's interesting is that the Amazon Rainforest is considered the largest, richest tropical rainforest on Earth with the most species diversity. Nominated as one of the natural Seven Wonders of the World ( #1 in Group E), the Amazon Rainforest is clearly a natural phenomenon and a mosaic of wilderness awaiting study and exploration. Experts have only identified nearly 2.5 million insect species, 40,000 plant species, 3000 fish species, 1294 bird species, 427 mammal species, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles (Citation #6). Please note that these statistics only represent a small chunk of the actual species diversity in the region, since it is virtually impossible to identify each every distinct species in this vast region. To put things into more perspective, there are approximately 75,000 tree species and more than 150,000 plant species (90 tons) in a mere 1 square mile of the rainforest (Citation #6).   

Historical Site 

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          Dating back to approximately 55 million years ago, it is believed that the Amazon Rainforest formed during the Eocene era, arising immediately after the evolution of angiosperm plants (Citation #6).Following the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, temperatures became more moist, which allowed the rainforest plant species to spread across the continent of South America. It has been proven that there was less precipitation back then, than compared to today. Evidence have shown that there has been major changes in the Amazon Rainforest's species biodiversity over the last 21,000 years to the Last Glacial Maximum (Citation #6). It is believed that there is much more biodiversity now than there was back then. This is mainly due to the fact that species have had more time to grow and evolve, giving time for different species to interact with each other and breed completely new species. (Citation #6). Archeological fossil evidence shows that human inhabitants established their first settlement in the region approximately 11,200 years ago, with prehistoric settlements along the forest's border dating to 3,300 years ago (Citation #6).However, the landscape of the Amazon rainforest is drastically changing as as both time and humans progress.

Description
The Amazon Rainforest is composed of four distinct layers: the emergent layer, the canopy, the understory, and the forest floor (Citation #9).  Each layer has its own unique characteristics, consisting of different ecosystems and plant and animal species that have adapted to a specific layer over time (Citation #9).  The emergent layer of the forest is the tallest layer (Citation #9).  Some trees can grow up to 200 feet with trunks up to 16 feet in circumference (Citation #9).  The trees in this layer are exposed to the different aspects of the climate in this region, including wind, rain, and a large temperature range (Citation #9).  One adaptation that these trees have is that their leaves are small and waxy, which allows them to retain water more easily (Citation #9).  The next layer of the rainforest is considered the main layer: the canopy (Citation #9).  According to scientists, it is possible that half of the world's species may be in this layer of the Amazon Rainforest (Citation #9).  This theory is supported by the fact that many of the highly adapted species in the rainforest evolved in the canopy, developing specific niches in response to intense competition for survival (Citation #9).  Unlike the trees in the emergent layer, the trees in the canopy have smooth, dense, oval leaves with pointed tips, also known as "drip tips" (Citation #9).  The leaves are shaped like this because any water that falls on the leaf quickly travels down and off the leaf (Citation #9).  Due to their dense nature, the leaves also serve the purpose of filtering out about 80% of the sunlight that goes through the canopy down to the bottom two layers (Citation #9).  Among a variety of native flowers and fruits that grow in the canopy, epiphytes are very common and are found throughout this layer (Citation #9).  With much of the sunlight being filtered out by the canopy, the next layer - the understory, only receives about 2 - 5% of the available sunlight in the rainforest (Citation #9).  As a result, the leaves of many plants are large and dark green, absorbing as much sunlight as they can (Citation #9).  Since very little wind passes through the understory, many plants depend on other creatures to pollinate their flowers (Citation #9).  This layer also contains the largest concentration of insects out of the 4 layers (Citation #9).  The last and lowest layer is the forest floor (Citation #9).  This layer receives even less sunlight than the understory, with only about 2% of available sunlight passing through here (Citation #9).  There are few plants that grow here, and the forest floor is mostly covered by decomposing organisms and plants that become nutrients (Citation #9).  This layer contains many nutrients, and trees have shallow roots in order to absorb these nutrients easily (Citation #9).  

Human Impacts

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The Amazon Rainforest is ranked as one of the top biodiversity hotspots in the world, and it contains many endangered species including: the golden lion tamarin monkey, gorilla, poison dart frog, manatee, harpy eagle, orangutan, jaguar, and the gray mouse (Citation #14). Species need many essential natural resources to stay alive (food, water, shelter, etc), let alone have an equilibrium balance between the number of prey and predator species. (Citation #9). Indeed, the Amazon rainforest offers a wide range of natural resources that people have come to utilize and commercialize. People are harvesting timber, medicinal plants/fruits, rubber, chocolate, oil, and are using the land for agriculture and cattle grazing. Humans are also using the forest's land for gold mining, petroleum, building hydro dams, and smelting ore (charcoal) (Citation #5). Indeed, humans' exploitation of the Amazon Rainforest region, is unquestionably disrupting the balance of equilibrium, creating many significant problems, with a major one being the direct disappearance of many species.  

Refer to Citation #1

          Human actions and exploitation of the region is among the first aspects to blame for the decrease in biodiversity of the forest. Deforestation is one of the biggest problems to plague the Amazon rainforest (Citation #1). Between 2000 and 2005, the annual rate of deforestation was nearly 14,000 square miles, which was an increase of 18% from the last 5 years (Citation #6). As humans began to clear the land to create settlements through slash and burn methods, the footage of uninhabited lands began to dwindle at an unprecedented rate. This caused extensive environmental damage throughout the 1960's to now (Citation #4). To put this problem into perspective, if humans continue to use the Amazon Rainforest's land to their own benefits, the rainforest will be reduced by 40% in the next 25 years, and may even cease to exist in 100 years (Citation #2). With the amount of land decreasing by the acre annually, species are losing their homes and are forced to modify their realized niches to smaller niches, which tends to overlap with other species' niches, and may force them to become extinct in the near future. 

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        Another distinct human inflicted problem disturbing the equilibrium balance 

Refer to Citation #10

is due to logging, causing huge problems like fragmentation. Fragmentation is the reduction of the areas of forest lands to smaller patches. A reduction of land is most likely due to road constructions. Roads that are manufactured directly through intact forest lands divide the region into distinct smaller regions, creating a shocking dichotomy in species interactions with one another. For example, many mahogany tree species, specifically Swietenia Macrophylla King, have become extinct due to overexploitation for commercial purposes (Citation #3). Thus, Mahogany logging has become an huge predicament and reason for dramatic fragmentation of the forests. Exploiters, who wish to harvest the Mahogany, are forced to construct long roads necessary to acquire the trees. The clearing of land and the construction of roads necessary to retrieve trees and create settlements, tends to lead to more forest fires and more climatic change, which will further threatens plant and animal species currently inhabiting the region (Citation #10).

                   

Refer to Citation #10

          To put things into even more perspective, rainforest lands that have been converted into cattle grazing lands, and lands for harvesting medicinal plants, are creating similar damages to that of deforestation and fragmentation. Evidence shows that land owners acquire nearly $400 per acre from the selling of timber alone. Shockingly, these communities can earn 5 to 10 times this amount by selling medicinal plants, nuts, fruits, and oils (Citation #8). These incentives are causing much of the Amazon Rainforest lands to be lost annually (Citation #9).

Future Prospects
         Fortunately, the status of the protected areas of the Amazon Rainforest is in excellent condition today, mainly because its conservation is highly prioritized by the World Wildlife Fund, which is a leading organization in wildlife conservation and endangered species. Conservationists have and are still persistently advocating for more reserves to be establish through methods like lobbying. One notable reserve is The Central Amazon Ecological Corridor. This particular reserve initially served as an uninhabited wilderness until The Brazilian Environmental Authority (2009) integrated a recreational park system into the region creating a distinct territory known as Parque Nacional Anavihanas (Citation #12). This reserve has ultimately saved and preserved the biodiversity of plants and animals existing in that area. However, illegal logging has still been a concern (not that prominent) for some conservationists. To put things into more perspective, 60%-80% of all logging done in the Amazon Rainforest is reported to be illegal (Citation #16).  Logs are often cut illegally from rivers and are floated downstream, where it is eventually "legalized" with fake documents claiming that they were cut under supervision from the forestry operation. Fortunately, since logging only makes up 2-3% of the total causes of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest, illegal logging has not remained a prominent/major problem in the Amazon Rainforest (Citation #1).  
Improvements
         There must be a systematic way of both preserving the rainforest and satisfying the commercial needs of mankind. People need to find better methods to harvest resources in a more sustainable manner, while trying to leave the Amazon Rainforest as intact as possible. In order to do this efficiently, more reserves and regulations should be implemented to better protect biodiversity hotspots, to ensure the preservation of the numerous species diversity, and undeniably beautiful scenic nature that the Amazon Rainforest has to offer.  

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                                                                                        Although activists are arguably lobbying for more reserves to be established in the Amazon Rainforest regions, there is still considerably many acres of land that are still subjected to human exploitation, that have most definitely harmed the species diversity in that particular area (Citation #12). We believe that one of the promising solutions to tackle this predicament, is through education. By educating the public regarding the the immense benefits that the Amazon Rainforest has to offer, including both diversity aspects and scenic travels, people will begin to reduce global exploitation of the region by reducing commercial interests. Another possible solution is through governmental regulation. Although a portion of the lands are redirected as reserves, there are many areas that yet to be regulated from logging, deforestation, mineral mining, medicinal harvest, and cattle grazing. In order to acquire more regulation over these lands, more support is needed for environmental lobbyists. The role of lobbyists is to persuade politicians on the local and national level to pass laws and policies regarding environmental issues. In order to preserve species rich places like the Amazon Rainforest in the future, it is up the next generation to take action. Hopefully our generation has made enough progress to lead future generations in the right direction for the preservation of the Amazon Rainforest. 

VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION

References
1. Butler, Rett A. "Amazon Destruction." Mongabay.com. N.p., 2010. Web. 21 Nov. 2013.
2. Butler, Rett. "Deforestation in the Amazon." n.d. 23 Nov. 2013. (Article)
3. Cotter, Janet. "Mahogany Logging Causes Fragmentation of the Brazilian Amazon."Mahogany (Article)
4. Fearnside, Phillip. "Rainforest Burning and the Global Carbon Budget: Biomass, Combustion Efficiency, and Charcoal Formation in the Brazilian Amazon." Wiley Online Library. American Geophysical Union, 21 Sept. 2012. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.  (Article)
5. Taylor, Leslie. "Welcome to the Amazon Rainforest." Wealth of the Rainforest. RainTree, n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013.
6. "Amazon Rainforest." Red Orbit. RedOrbit.com, n.d. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.
7."Logging Causes Fragmentation of the Brazilian Amazon". Greenpeace International Science Unit, n.d. Web. 23 Nov. 2013. 
8. "Amazon Rainforest." Amazon Rainforest. Aceer Foundation, n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013.
9. "Amazon Rainforest." Amazon Rainforest. N.p., 2003. Web. 22 Nov. 2013.
10. "Amazon Overview." WorldWildlife.org. World Wildlife Fund, n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013.
11."Central Amazonian Conservation Complex, Brazil." Central Amazonian Conservation Complex, Brazil. United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation M, 17 Nov. 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.
12. "Explore the Largest Reserve in the AmazonAmazon Expedition Cruises into the World's Largest Rainforest Reserve." Amazon Rainforest Reserve. Amazon Nation Tours, 22 Feb. 2013. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.
13."Eyes on Trade: Action Alert: Save the Peruvian Amazon." 'Eyes on Trade' N.p., 17 Oct. 2007. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.
14. "Most Endangered Species in Amazon Rainforest." Green Buzz. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013.
15. "Trees of the Amazon Rainforest." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, 2013. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.
16. "Logging in the Amazon." Greenpeace International. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2013.

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